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Quaternary Science ReviewsPaleontologyPeer-reviewed journal article

Diverse megamammals exploited by humans, chronology and palaeoecology at Taima-Taima, Late Pleistocene, South America

Jorge D. Carrillo-BriceñoiD, Karina Vanesa ChichkoyaniD, Arturo JaimesiD, Lorena Becerra‐ValdiviaiD, Oscar E. WilsoniD, Kévin Le VergeriD, Dimila MothéiD, Diego VargasiD, Andrés E. Reyes-CespedesiD, Lautaro Maximiliam HilbertiD, Rodolfo SáncheziD, Nohé Gonzalo GilsoniD, Olivier TombretiD, Astrid Bauville, Marine LibotiD, Alfredo Armando CarliniiD, Antoine ZazzoiD, Marcelo Ricardo Sánchez-VillagraiD

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In-depth summary

Claude Opus 5.5 · xhigh effort · 5 Nov 2026 · from the full text of version 1 (23 Jan 2026) · CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

Bone modification analyses, tooth enamel radiocarbon dates, and dental calculus microfossils indicate that Late Pleistocene humans exploited at least five megaherbivore species at a savannah watering hole in Venezuela.

Direct empirical evidence and reliable chronological frameworks for human exploitation of extinct Pleistocene megafauna in South America remain scarce, limiting tests of the overhunting hypothesis. Reassessing Taima-Taima osteological collections alongside tooth enamel radiocarbon dating and dental microfossils expands the spectrum of butchered megaherbivores and reconstructs their Late Pleistocene savannah watering-hole ecology.

Key results

  1. ShownMacroscopic and microscopic bone surface analyses expand the record of human-exploited Late Pleistocene megaherbivores at Taima-Taima to at least five extinct species across three stratigraphic layers.

    Eleven fossil bones showed nine types of probable anthropic cut, chop, slicing, and percussion marks across Notiomastodon platensis (>=3 individuals, including limb and pelvic bones of the 1976 skeleton associated with El Jobo points and scrapers), Glossotherium cf. robustum, an indeterminate mylodontid, cf. Xenorhinotherium bahiense, and an indeterminate toxodontid, plus Glyptotherium cf. G. cylindricum. · 2.1 Taxonomy and bone surface modifications; 4.1 Surface modification of megaherbivore bones…; 6. Taima-Taima, the hunting ground; Figure legends

  2. ShownAMS radiocarbon dating of fossil tooth enamel places the fossiliferous strata at 15,315 to 17,810 cal yr BP, while all 29 bone and dentine samples lacked sufficient collagen for dating.

    Seven tooth enamel 14C dates spanned 16,760-17,810 cal yr BP for Basal/Medium stratum N. platensis molars, 16,330-16,695 cal yr BP for the human-modified 1976 N. platensis skeleton (CIAAP-83-1486) in the Middle stratum, and 15,315-15,830 cal yr BP for two Upper stratum Equus sp. teeth; all 29 bone/dentine samples had <0.2% N (below the 0.76% N threshold) and none of the 7 extracted samples yielded collagen. · 2.2.1 Bone/dentine collagen dating; 2.2.2 Tooth enamel dating; 4.2 Chronology; 7. Final Remarks

  3. ShownDental calculus microfossils and dental mesowear indicate that Notiomastodon platensis and co-occurring megaherbivores inhabited an open savannah watering hole with both grass and browse resources.

    Eight N. platensis dental calculus samples yielded 19 phytoliths (arboreal dicots in 6 samples, Poaceae in 3, Marantaceae, Asteraceae in 1, Arecaceae in 1) and 8 starch grains (cf. Poales in 5, cf. Fabaceae in 2, cf. Dioscoreaceae in 1), with 75% (6/8) showing grass intake, matching a grazing mesowear angle of 128.4 deg in N. platensis vs 106.5 deg in Eremotherium laurillardi and 152.5 deg in Glossotherium robustum. · 4.3 Dietary analysis of Notiomastodon platensis…; 5. Ancient palaeoenvironment; Figure legends

Methods, data and reproducibility

Examined Late Pleistocene megaherbivore fossils from Taima-Taima across 4 Venezuelan museum collections macroscopically and stereomicroscopically (Wild M8x40) for anthropic bone marks. Performed nitrogen screening and collagen extraction on 29 bone/dentine samples, AMS 14C dating on 7 acetic-acid-pretreated tooth enamel samples calibrated with IntCal20 in OxCal 4.4, and microscopy of 8 N. platensis calculus samples.

  • Late Pleistocene megaherbivore osteological elements examined for anthropic surface modifications from Taima-Taima (Falcon State, Venezuela) · multiple species · n = 11 modified bones across >=5 extinct megaherbivore species (>=14 N. platensis)
  • Megaherbivore bone/dentine samples screened for collagen preservation and fossil tooth enamel samples dated by AMS 14C · multiple species · n = 29 bone/dentine samples and 7 tooth enamel samples (5 N. platensis, 2 Equus sp.)
  • Dental calculus samples from Notiomastodon platensis molars analyzed for phytoliths and starch grains · multiple species · n = 8 dental calculus samples yielding 19 phytoliths and 8 starch grains
Methods & tools
OxCal, IntCal20, AMS ECHoMicadas
Reagents & environment
OxCal 4.4, IntCal20
Reproducibility gaps
Osteological and dental specimens are housed in Venezuelan museum collections (CIAAP, MCH-Pv, IVIC, MCNC) with details in electronic supplementary materials; no public digital datasets or code repositories are reported.
Limitations (3)
  • All 29 bone and dentine samples failed radiocarbon dating due to poor collagen preservation (<0.2% N), and the 7 tooth enamel 14C dates (15.3-17.8 cal kyr BP) likely represent minimum age estimates due to potential modern carbon uptake in a water-active burial environment. · stated by the authors
  • Assigning modified bones to specific individuals and strata is limited by isolated preservation, unrecovered skeletal elements from historical excavations, missing stratigraphic records for some 1960s-1970s finds, and a diorama covering the 1974 N. platensis pelvis. · stated by the authors
  • Linear cut marks on Glossotherium, cf. Xenorhinotherium bahiense, and toxodontid bones lacked associated lithic artifacts and indicate carcass butchering/dismemberment rather than proving active hunting of those taxa. · stated by the authors

Read this if you investigate Late Pleistocene human-megafauna interactions, archaeological bone surface modifications, or paleoecological reconstruction in South America.

Citations
2
FWCI
42.11
Field percentile
top 1%

Abstract

The arrival of humans to the Americas at the end of the Pleistocene has been one of the foundations of the hypothesis that hunter-gatherer groups had a direct role in the extinction of megafauna. However, empirical evidence of the exploitation of megafauna by humans and associated chronological context are still scarce, especially in South America. Using evidence of modifications on osteological remains, we provide a reassessment of the megafauna that was exploited at the classic Taima-Taima site (Venezuela), with an updated chronology and paleoenvironmental inferences. Our results show that, at least, five species of extinct megaherbivores were probably exploited at the site, expanding the previous records, restricted to the proboscidean Notiomastodon platensis and the giant armadillo Glyptotherium cf. G. cylindricum. The new data of the other exploited taxa include the terrestrial sloth Glossotherium, the macrauchenid cf. Xenorhinotherium bahiense and a toxodontid; both killing and slaughtering activities were likely practised at the site. Seven new enamel radiocarbon dates show an age of 15.3-17.8 cal kyr BP for the fossiliferous strata, although this is likely to be a minimum age given the materials propensity for modern carbon uptake. The study of phytoliths and starch grains from the dental calculus of N. platensis identified five plant taxa from the phytoliths: arboreal dicotyledons, Poaceae, Marantaceae, Asteraceae and Arecaceae. Ecometrics studies of dental diversity reveal how no other single site on the continent preserves such a diversity of grazing and browsing megaherbivores exploited by humans.

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