Mosaic of local adaptation between white clover and rhizobia along an urbanization gradient

O_LIUrbanization frequently alters the biotic and abiotic environmental context. Variation in both the biotic and abiotic environment can result in selection mosaics that lead to locally adapted phenotypes. Ecological changes to urban environments have been found to result in evolutionary responses across a diverse array of plants and animals, but the effects of urbanization on local adaptation and coevolution between species remains largely unstudied. C_LIO_LIUsing a common garden experiment of 30 populations and 1080 plants, we tested for local adaptation in the mutualism between white clover (Trifolium repens) and rhizobia (Rhizobium leguminosarum symbiovar trifolii) along an urbanization gradient. We asked: (Q1) are white clover and rhizobia locally adapted? (Q2) Does nitrogen (N) addition mediate the strength of local adaptation? (Q3) Is the strength of local adaptation in host plants related to the strength of local adaptation in rhizobia, as expected if white clover and rhizobia are co-adapting? And (Q4) How does the degree of local adaptation vary with urbanization? C_LIO_LIWe found evidence for local adaptation for both white clover and rhizobia, with stronger signatures of local adaptation for rhizobia than white clover (Q1). While N addition positively affected plant biomass and negatively affected nodule density, N addition did not consistently mediate patterns of local adaptation (Q2). The strength of local adaptation was positively related between white clover and rhizobia under N addition, suggesting that soil N mediates co-adaptation between white clover and rhizobia (Q3). We did not find a consistent relationship between measures of urbanization and local adaptation (Q4). Additionally, fitness responses for white clover and rhizobia were unrelated to Rhizobium abundance and local adaptation was unrelated to the broader bacterial microbiome in the soil inoculants or root endosphere. C_LIO_LISynthesis. Our results show a spatial mosaic in local adaptation, with stronger local adaptation for rhizobia than white clover. While urbanization does influence the ecology of plant-microbe interactions, our study suggests urbanization does not disrupt local adaptation and coevolution among mutualists. C_LI