Morphological characterization of moulting in the Atlantic horseshoe crabLimulus polyphemus and evolutionary insights into moulting patterns inArthropoda

Abstract

Arthropods must periodically moult their exoskeleton to permit growth, a conserved developmental process whose morphological and behavioural execution varies widely among lineages. Horseshoe crabs (Limulidae) are members of Xiphosura, a chelicerate lineage with a fossil record extending as far back as the Ordovician and provide a valuable comparative framework for studying the evolution of moulting strategies in Arthropoda. Despite their importance, detailed morphological characterization of moulting in horseshoe crabs remains scarce, limiting developmental studies and broader comparative analyses. Here, we provide a detailed morphological characterization of the moulting process in the Atlantic horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus. Morphological changes in specific anatomical structures, including the anterior margin of the prosoma, lateral spines and dorsal spinous process of the opisthosoma, were observed during the moulting process. By tracking these morphological markers, such as retraction of the epidermis from the cuticle and degree of corrugation of the epidermis, we were able to identify individuals in the early and late pre-moult stage, predict the onset of ecdysis, and distinguish post-moult and intermoult stages. We compare ecdysis patterns in L. polyphemus with other arthropod taxa, both extant and fossil. We find that, despite differences in behavioural execution, ecdysis in L. polyphemus shares features with other chelicerates, and that both phylogenetic signal and convergent patterns are evident across Arthropoda. This study offers a robust, non-invasive method for determining moult stages in juvenile horseshoe crabs and provides insights into the diversity and constraints of ecdysis in Arthropoda.