Impacts of environmental factors on seed germination and seedling emergence of white clover (Trifolium repens L.)

White clover (Trifolium repens L.) is cultivated as a forage crop and planted in various landscapes for soil conservation. There are numerous reports of failed white clover stands each year. A good understanding of seed germination biology of white clover in relation to environmental factors is essential to achieve successful stand establishment. A series of experiments were conducted to investigate the impacts of light, temperature, planting depth, drought, and salt stress on seed germination and emergence of white clover. White clover is negatively photoblastic, and seed germination averaged 63 and 66% under light and complete dark conditions at 4 weeks after planting (WAP), respectively. Temperature affected seed germination speed and rate. At 1 WAP, seeds incubated at 15 to 25 {degrees}C demonstrated significantly higher germination rate than the low temperatures at 5 and 10 {degrees}C; however, the germination rate did not differ among the temperature treatments at 4 WAP. Results suggest that white clover germination decreases with increasing sowing depths and the seeds should be sown on the soil surface or shallowly buried at a depth [≤]1 cm to achieve an optimal emergence. White clover seeds exhibited high sensitivity to drought and salinity stress. The osmotic potential and NaCl concentration required to inhibit 50% seed germination was -0.19 MPa and 62.4 mM, respectively. Overall, these findings provide quantifiable explanations for inconsistent establishment observed in field conditions. The findings obtained in this research can be used to develop effective planting strategies and support the successful establishment of white clover stands.