Expecting the unexpected: Great apes anticipate surprise in others
I. B. Laumer, Laura S. Lewis, Johanna Eckert, Sasha Winkler, Moritz Koester, Roger Mundry, Daniel Haun, Christopher Krupenye, Erica A. Cartmill
This study shows great apes can detect when an agent's belief mismatches reality, indicating a cognitive understanding of surprise.
bioRxiv · Oct 13, 2026 · PreprintAnimal Behavior & Cognition