SARS-CoV-2 Spike S1 glycoprotein is a TLR4 agonist, upregulates ACE2 expression and induces pro-inflammatory M1 macrophage polarisation.
M. M. Aboudounya, M. R. Holt, R. J. Heads
This study shows that SARS-CoV-2 spike S1 glycoprotein activates TLR4, increases ACE2 expression, and promotes M1 macrophage polarization in human and rat cells.
bioRxiv · Aug 11, 2021 · PreprintCell Biology