The sense of agency in near and far space: where do we stand?

Modern technology frequently places the consequences of our actions at a distance (e.g., remote surgery, smart-home control, virtual reality). Does spatial distance between an action and its outcome weaken the sense of agency (SoA) - the feeling of control over ones actions and consequences? Two recent studies answered "yes", reporting stronger temporal binding (TB) in near than far space and interpreting this as greater implicit agency (Jenkins & Obhi, 2021; Mariano et al., 2024). A third study - our own work with a similar paradigm - found no distance effect (Kong et al., 2024). Here we (i) provide a rigorous side-by-side methodological comparison of the three studies, (ii) argue why a direct test to establish a distance modulation of TB (the Near - Far difference of the Active - Passive delta) should be performed in order to reach meaningful conclusions, and (iii) report new re-analyses of our data and direct tests on the two target studies. Overall, current evidence does not support a distance effect on SoA. Our reassessment provides alternative explanations that converge with available evidence suggesting that distance may influence temporal interval perception, but that effect is independent of action intention and therefore of agency. Public Significance StatementIn our increasingly connected world, we often interact with devices and influence events that are physically distant from us - like controlling smart appliances remotely or engaging in virtual reality experiences. Does the distance between us and the effects of our actions change how much we feel in control of the outcomes of our actions? Recent studies have suggested that we feel less responsible when action outcomes appear in far space compared to near space. However, methodological limitations in these studies, as well as our own results with a similar paradigm, challenge the validity of this claim. We aim to contribute to the crucial debate on the role of spatial distance on humans feeling of responsibility by providing a respectful though critical analysis of recent findings and offering recommendations for future research.