Parallel elevational replacement of hosts and parasites in a highly susceptible songbird genus

Elevational replacement distribution patterns underpin montane diversity and reflect the interaction of both biotic and abiotic pressures, but the degree to which parasites exhibit elevational zonation remains unclear. Investigating infection patterns in related host species across elevational gradients can reveal whether parasites and hosts show concordant patterns of elevational turnover, potentially due to shared historical and ecological factors. Here, we assessed patterns of elevational replacement in haemosporidian parasite assemblages that infect three congeneric songbird species: Bells vireo (Vireo bellii), gray vireo (V. vicinior), and plumbeous vireo (V. plumbeus), each of which breeds across distinct elevations and habitats in the southwestern United States. We screened a total of 248 individuals using cytochrome b PCR and microscopy. We identified 19 haemosporidian haplotypes, including eight novel lineages. We found that each of the three vireo species exhibited high haemosporidian prevalence (55.0-86.2%), with nearly all infections from the genus Haemoproteus (subgenus Parahaemoproteus). Haemosporidian assemblages varied across elevations; each sampled range of elevations harbored abundant, yet host-specific lineages with different environmental associations. Bells and plumbeous vireos, but not gray vireos, hosted several phylogenetically distinct, putative generalist lineages, likely reflecting spillover from more diverse local breeding bird communities. Repeated infections in individuals across breeding seasons, together with moderate parasitemia (x{square} {approx} 1%) suggest that these focal vireo species harbor chronic infections during their respective breeding seasons. These results demonstrate that elevational replacement patterns in avian hosts may be mirrored by their haemosporidian parasites, particularly among host-specialized lineages.