Phenotypic plasticity, heritability, and genotype-by-environment interactions in an insect dispersal polymorphism

Evolutionary fitness is determined by the match between an organisms phenotype and its local environment. When mismatched, individuals may disperse to more suitable habitats. For flightless insects, however, the range of dispersal is typically limited. Numerous flightless species have, therefore, evolved a dispersal dimorphism, that is, some individuals in otherwise short-winged populations develop long wings. Wing development may be genetically or environmentally determined, but these two drivers have rarely been analysed together. We studied the inheritance and density-dependent plasticity in the dispersal dimorphism of the meadow grasshopper Pseudochorthippus parallelus. Using a full-sib half-sib breeding design, we found that the development of long wings strongly depends on rearing density, with tactile stimulation being the most likely proximate cause. Additionally, we found heritable variation in the development of long wings, both in the propensity to produce long wings and in response to density (genotype-by-environment interactions). While at high and low densities, the environmental effect dominates, genetic variation takes effect mostly at intermediate densities. Our results have implications for the phenotype-environment match and ultimately the evolution of individualized niches. Induced dimorphisms represent a form of niche conformance (or adaptive phenotypic plasticity) and both genetic and induced dispersal dimorphisms facilitate niche choice in allowing individuals to sample a greater range of environments. Our study shows that niche-related polymorphisms can evolve via selection on the sensitivity threshold.