Genomic Isomerism and Environmental Adaptation in Cyanophages Infecting Freshwater Cyanobacteria

Abstract

Cyanophages infecting multicellular, heterocyst-forming cyanobacteria play diverse pivotal roles in freshwater ecosystems, yet their infection strategies and genomic adaptability remain poorly understood. Here, we isolated and characterized three Caudoviricetes cyanophages (A-Lf14, A-Alj1 and A-Hlh1) specifically infecting the nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. PCC 7120. Super-resolution microscopy revealed heterogeneous infection outcomes even among adjacent cells within the same filament, highlighting host-level defense variability. Comparative genomics placed these phages within a cluster that includes the previously isolated phages A-1(L) and N1, and revealed a conserved [~]30 kb invertible genomic region flanked by inverted repeats (IR). This region exists as two stable isomers simultaneously within phage populations, a previously unreported genomic plasticity trait in cyanophages. Consistent with such plasticity, infection kinetics were modulated by light and nitrogen availability, indicating a resource-responsive infection strategy. The novel phages encode an alkaline phosphatase of non-cyanobacterial origin, which was highly upregulated during infection indicating a role in phosphate acquisition in phosphate-limited waters. In contrast, they lack a tnpB gene present in A-1(L), which is identical in sequence to five genes in the host genome. We detected protein-coding potential for both strands of tnpB and upregulated transcription during infection, consistent with a role in this process. The 347 residues protein encoded on the tnpB reverse strand exhibited only limited similarity to other proteins or folding potential, underlining its novelty. Our work illustrates how genomic isomerism, accessory genes, and environmental sensing collectively drive functional diversification in cyanophages, providing insights into phage-host coevolution and the impact of phages on cyanobacterial blooms in dynamic freshwater ecosystems.