Transcription-induced mutation and ancient gBGC shape the evolution of human transcriptional start sites

Abstract

In the human genome, mutation rates vary along genes, yet how their fine-scale structure contributes to gene evolution has remained largely unexplored. Here, we map inherited mutations at single-nucleotide resolution and uncover a striking hypermutation peak at transcription start sites (TSSs). This pattern is observed both in population polymorphisms and in de novo mutations from parent-offspring trios, and is dependent on transcriptional activity in testes. We also find similar hypermutation peaks at TSSs used to produce long noncoding RNAs and at intergenic RNA Polymerase II pause sites. In addition, we identify distinct mutational signatures at exon-intron boundaries and in introns. By comparing the current nucleotide content to predicted equilibrium levels, inferred from mutation and fixation rates, and by analyzing derived ancestral frequency spectrums, we detect signals that are compatible with a low level of ongoing background GC-biased gene conversion (gBGC) throughout the region and ancestral elevated gBGC activity downstream from the TSS. Using a forward-in-time simulation algorithm, we show that the current nucleotide composition surrounding the TSS of protein-coding genes is best explained by local mutation biases coupled to ongoing and ancestral patterns of gene conversions. Our simulations allow us to infer several features of these gBGC events. Overall, these findings indicate that the nucleotide composition around TSSs is largely shaped by non-adaptive forces, particularly mutation bias and gBGC.