Extraction-dependent bone proteomics reveals distinct stable and dynamic protein modules during early post-exposure degradation

Abstract

Bone is a highly durable biological tissue widely used in forensic, archaeological, and anthropological investigations; however, efficient protein recovery and understanding of protein stability over time remain major challenges in skeletal proteomics. Here, we systematically evaluated three bone protein extraction workflows and integrated them with data-independent acquisition (DIA) mass spectrometry to assess proteome coverage, reproducibility, and temporal protein dynamics under environmentally exposed conditions. Comparative analysis demonstrated that extraction strategy is a primary determinant of detectable proteome composition. EDTA-based demineralization followed by SDS extraction provided the deepest proteome coverage and highest reproducibility, whereas guanidine hydrochloride extraction preferentially enriched collagen and extracellular matrix proteins. In contrast, acid-based extraction yielded limited protein recovery. Temporal profiling of bone samples collected at 10 and 45 days post-exposure revealed two distinct protein classes. A temporally stable module, enriched in collagens and extracellular matrix proteins including COL1A2, COL5A2, BGN, SPARCL1, and NID2, exhibited minimal abundance change, indicating resistance to environmental degradation. In contrast, temporally dynamic proteins, enriched in mitochondrial, metabolic, and intracellular pathways such as ACO2, OGDH, PDHA1, ATP5PO, and PFKM, showed marked decline over time. These findings support a two-compartment model of bone protein preservation in which matrix-embedded proteins are preferentially retained while exposed intracellular proteins undergo progressive degradation. Collectively, this study establishes an integrated framework linking extraction methodology with temporal proteome stability and identifies candidate markers for skeletal preservation assessment and temporal biomarker development in forensic and archaeological applications.