Lethal permeabilization of host bacteria to small-molecule compounds during phage penetration

Abstract

The tailed phages (Caudoviricetes) rely on specialized mechanisms to inject their double-stranded linear genomic DNA (gDNA) across the bacterial envelope. During this gDNA entry process, ionic fluxes and membrane depolarization may occur, potentially leading to increased vulnerability to antibiotic molecules. Here, we report that phage gDNA translocation combined with certain small molecules triggers a rapid and phage-specific cell permeabilization leading to growth arrest. Using live-cell fluorescence microscopy, we visualized the accumulation of otherwise excluded compounds such as anthracyclines and propidium iodide. We show that the influx and accumulation of these compounds depend on both the presence of an inner membrane (IM) receptor and persistent membrane depolarization. We further demonstrate that phage-induced permeabilization enhances the efficacy of certain antibiotics, enabling a synergistic elimination of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Our results provide a mechanistic foundation for combining phages with small-molecule therapeutics and offer new insights into how phage entry relies on and alters host physiology.