Highly expressed genes evolve under strong epistasis from a proteome-wide scan in E. coli

Epistasis or the non-additivity of mutational effects is a major force in protein evolution, but it has not been systematically quantified at the level of a proteome. Here, we estimated the extent of epistasis for 2,382 genes in E. coli using several hundreds of orthologs for each gene within the class Gammaproteobacteria. We found that the average epistasis is ~41% across genes in the proteome and that epistasis is stronger among highly expressed genes. This trend is quantitatively explained by the prevailing model of sequence evolution based on minimizing the fitness cost of protein unfolding and aggregation. Our results highlight the coupling between selection and epistasis in the long-term evolution of a proteome.