Chemical imaging unveils mitochondria as the major site of medicinal biguanide accumulation within cells

Abstract

Metformin (MET), a commonly prescribed medication for managing type 2 diabetes, has demonstrated various beneficial effects beyond its primary anti-diabetic efficacy. However, the mechanism underlying MET activity and its distribution within organelles remain largely unknown. In this study, we integrate multiple technologies, including chemical labeling, immunostaining, and high-resolution microscopy imaging, to visualize the accumulation of MET in organelles of cultured cells. To achieve this objective, an alkynylated MET probe is developed that preserves biological activity similar to biguanide drugs. As determined by biorthogonal chemical labeling and imaging, the MET probe selectively localizes to substructures within cells, contrasting with its probe control. Furthermore, the MET probe can be competitively and efficiently washed out through biguanide administration, demonstrating the specific activity of this probe in monitoring the cellular dynamics of biguanide drugs. Our results indicate that the MET probe can reach near-saturated concentrations within two hours and is rapidly eliminated within an additional two hours once the exogenous source of the drug is removed. Furthermore, we reveal that the MET probe primarily accumulates in mitochondria, particularly within the mitochondrial matrix, and has a minor presence in other organelles, such as lysosomes and endosomes. Together, this study provides the first view of the MET subcellular localization and lays the foundation for future investigations on its molecular targets and mechanisms of action in promoting human health.