3,500 years of sheeppox virus evolution inferred from archaeological and codicological genomes

Sheeppox virus (SPPV) is a major livestock pathogen causing economic hardship through reduced production and death of vulnerable sheep, with written descriptions of sheeppox-like disease recorded since antiquity. We report 21 novel ancient SPPV genomes spanning the Eurasian steppe Bronze Age ([~]1,700 BCE) to the Early Modern period in Western Europe, including multiple genomes obtained from medieval parchment. We estimate that major capripoxvirus lineages diverged [~]11,500-3,700 years ago, overlapping known translocations and bio-cultural developments in sheep. Our dataset supports SPPV diverging first within the lineage leading to goatpox virus and lumpy skin disease virus, and that known gene inactivation events within SPPV and goatpox virus occur in our earliest SPPV genomes. These findings reveal that the food security of Eurasian communities have been threatened by sheeppox for over 3,700 years, and provide new insights to the genomic evolution and potential host adaptation of sheeppox virus. TeaserAncient viral genomes from manuscripts and teeth illuminate the evolutionary history of sheeppox virus.