Antimicrobial cetylpyridinium chloride disrupts the mitochondrial electron transport chain as potently as cyanide, via cardiolipin interference at cytochrome C

Abstract

People are widely exposed to the antimicrobial cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) via consumer products, but CPC is a mitochondrial toxicant with potency comparable to that of canonical mitotoxicants. CPC is largely unregulated despite growing usage, bioavailability, and ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. Previously, we showed, in several cell types at non-cytotoxic and exposure-relevant doses, CPC inhibits ATP and OCR, endpoints of the electron transport chain (ETC). Mitochondrial toxicity is linked to multiple diseases (e.g., diabetes, Parkinsons, myalgic encephalomyelitis), but CPC has not been studied epidemiologically, and little mechanistic information is available. To determine why OCR and ATP are hampered by CPC, we hypothesized that CPC inhibits individual ETC components, cardiolipin, or TCA enzymes. Here, we show that, in primary human skin cells, an immune mast cell model, and isolated mitochondria, CPC apparently inhibits multiple ETC Complexes. Detailed investigation pinpointed the mechanism to the distal end of ETC: Complex III-cytochrome C-Complex IV. Using multiple approaches, we show that CPC does not directly inhibit any of the Complexes (not even Complex I as earlier reported), nor TCA enzymes, nor coenzyme Q. Yet, we found that CPC exhibits mitotoxicity as potent as cyanide. Anionic lipid cardiolipin attracts cytochrome C to the inner mitochondrial membrane so that it may shuttle electrons from Complex III to IV. Despite not altering levels of cardiolipin, CPC hinders cytochrome C by electrostatically interfering with cardiolipin. To aid epidemiology, risk analysis, and predictive toxicology, we have determined the precise biochemical mechanism of action of this ubiquitous compound.