Artificial initiation codons and engineered initiator tRNAs enable N-terminal noncanonical amino acid incorporation in intact cell-free translation systems

Abstract

Noncanonical amino acid (ncAA) incorporation at the protein N-terminus provides a powerful strategy for installing defined chemical handles while minimizing perturbation of internal protein sequences. However, highly efficient initiation-based ncAA incorporation systems suppress the native methionine pathway by removing methionine or methionyl-tRNA synthetase, limiting their use for proteins containing internal methionine residues. Here, we developed an orthogonal initiation system for selective N-terminal ncAA incorporation into proteins in intact cell-free translation systems. We systematically profiled background initiation from all 64 codons in reconstituted translation systems and identified low-background artificial initiation codons. Engineered initiator tRNAs, termed tRNAIniTx, were then designed to decode selected codons and support ncAA-dependent initiation. The optimized CAC/tRNAIniTx04GUG pair enabled efficient N-terminal incorporation of N-biotinyl-L-phenylalanine without removing methionine or methionyl-tRNA synthetase, reaching over 90% incorporation. The system was further extended to p-azido-L-phenylalanine and to an Escherichia coli extract-based cell-free translation system. Finally, N-terminally biotinylated proteins were directly immobilized on streptavidin biosensors for purification-free biolayer interferometry analysis of computationally designed Brd4BD2 binders. This work establishes a codon-guided orthogonal initiation strategy for N-terminal protein functionalization while preserving the native methionine translation pathway.