Dissecting the regulatory activity and sequence content of loci with exceptional numbers of transcription factor associations

Abstract

DNA associated proteins (DAPs) classically regulate gene expression by binding to regulatory loci such as enhancers or promoters. As expanding catalogs of genome-wide DAP binding maps reveal thousands of loci that, unlike the majority of conventional enhancers and promoters, associate with dozens of different DAPs with apparently little regard for motif preference, an understanding of DAP association and coordination at such regulatory loci is essential to deciphering how these regions contribute to normal development and disease. In this study, we aggregated publicly available ChIP-seq data from 469 human DAPs assayed in three cell lines and integrated these data with an orthogonal dataset of 352 non-redundant, in vitro-derived motifs mapped to the genome within DNase hypersensitivity footprints in an effort to characterize regions of the genome that have exceptionally high numbers of DAP associations. We subsequently performed a massively parallel mutagenesis assay to search for sequence elements driving transcriptional activity at such loci and explored plausible biological mechanisms underlying their formation. We establish a generalizable definition for High Occupancy Target (HOT) loci and identify putative driver DAP motifs in HEPG2 cells, including HNF4A, SP1, SP5, and ETV4, that are highly prevalent and exhibit sequence conservation at HOT loci. The number of different DAPs associated with an element is positively associated with evidence of regulatory activity and, by systematically mutating 245 HOT loci, we localized regulatory activity to a central core region that depends on the motif sequences of our previously nominated driver DAPs. In sum, this work leverages the increasingly large number of DAP motif and ChIP-seq data publicly available to explore how DAP associations contribute to genome-wide transcriptional regulation.