Tissue surface mechanics constrains proliferation-driven forces to guide mammalian body axis elongation

Mammalian embryos undergo complex morphogenetic changes after implantation in the uterus. The elongation of the body along a head-to-tail axis is a pivotal event, as it lays the foundation of the body plan. While genetic and biochemical aspects of mammalian body elongation have been uncovered, the physical mechanism of axial morphogenesis remains unknown, largely due to the inaccessibility of the implanted embryo to physical measurements and manipulations in utero. Gastruloids, a stem-cell-based embryo model of mammalian axial morphogenesis, lift such limitations. Combining live imaging, direct mechanical measurements, and chemical and mechanical perturbations, here we show that axis elongation in mouse and human gastruloids is guided by a posterior actin cap at the tissue surface that constrains the expansive forces of cell proliferation. Measurements of mechanical stresses using oil microdroplets, as well as inhibition of cell proliferation and myosin activity, show that the forces driving elongation arise from cell proliferation, and not from convergent extension movements. We find that isotropic tissue expansion is redirected into posterior elongation by the formation of a supracellular actin cap at the posterior tissue surface that restricts lateral tissue expansion. Finally, we show that posterior elongation in mouse embryos displays the key features of the physical elongation mechanism reported for mouse and human gastruloids. These findings reveal that mammalian body axis elongation, including human, occurs via a different physical mechanism from other vertebrate species.